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Mosquito War Claims Connecticut Marshes 1901-1915
The Sound School Inter-District Marine Education Program Newsletter
Habitat Information for Fishers and Fishery Area Managers
Understanding Science Through History

May 2014
The Sound School
Reissued as
IMEP #16
EPA-DEP Long Island Sound Study
Habitat Restoration Initiative
CLIMATE CHANGE AND PUBLIC OPINION
A Habitat History of Salt Marshes and Malaria
Timothy C. Visel, Member, HRI Committee
The Sound School, New Haven, CT
August 8, 2008

As Connecticut experienced a similar warming period (1974 to the present), West Nile virus appeared in 1994; western Connecticut appeared to have the first cases and larger presence of West Nile. The previous hot period 1880-1920 also saw the rise of Malaria. My interest was, “Did West Nile and Malaria outbreaks have a long term habitat and climate connection?”
Perhaps no town has recorded more climate habitat changes over the past two centuries than Greenwich, Connecticut. As the 1870s came to a close, extreme cold gripped New England. The winter of 1874-75 saw maritime transit come to a halt by mid December, early thick ice closed most New England ports. Connecticut’s valley apple orchards froze in valleys as temperatures below minus 35°F were recorded by Philo S. Beers of Cheshire, during the winter of 1872-73 writing for the Connecticut Board of Agriculture, January 1875. Apple trees planted on hill tops survived and later “hilltop orchards” became an industry practice. While thick ice and brutally cold temperatures raked the shore towns, Greenwich Connecticut leads New England’s bay scallop crop. Small skiffs off Greenwich were often loaded with bay scallops to the sinking point, and most fisher narratives include great catches during this great cold. Four decades later, Greenwich would be famous not for its bay scallops, but for Malaria. While Europe was sliding into war, a habitat war broke out in Greenwich as the much dreaded mosquito vectored disease Malaria returned there to plague coastal residents. Salt marshes had been long before a resource to value, salt hay for animal food (and salt source) or bedding, but in the Great Heat, these same marshes became dreaded places and the source of disease. By 1905, public opinion vastly changed towards them as temperatures increased as with mosquito populations and Malaria outbreaks was linked to salt marsh habitats.
Historic Methods of Mosquito Control – Recent Mosquito Control Methods During The Great Heat 1880-1920 and Present Times

Conversation: John Anderson, Retired Director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station and Tim Visel who recorded their conversation on August 6, 2008, Plant Science Day at Lockwood Farms, Hamden, CT

- Plant Science Day, Lockwood Farms, Hamden, CT -

After introducing myself (I have met and attended several meetings with John Anderson over the years) and by thanking him for the Connecticut Agriculture Experiment Station’s long support of our Vo Ag Center by providing help and assistance to our small traditional agriculture program at the Sound School. I asked him if he had a few moments. He said, “Yes.” And I asked him if he ever worked with Julius Elston, former Director of the Vector Division of the State Department of Health. “Yes, I did,” he responded. The responsibility of mosquito control dates back to the 1940’s when it was transferred from the New Haven Agriculture Experiment Station and a committee to oversee the program that met at the Experiment Station until Madison’s office opened up. That facility still functions as the State DEEP Marsh Restoration Unit. (That is the office I would stop in at while berry picking off River Road in Madison as a teenager.) Living at Webster Point, Pent Road in Madison, I would often see the mosquito ditching cleaning operation and stopped in to see what the equipment was all about – 1968-72 was the time frame for my first visit. The Connecticut Department of Health Services, as it was commonly called, operated the Vector Division on state property off River Road, Madison. Dr. Anderson replied, “Yes, was Mr. Elston still alive?” I wasn’t certain, but Dr. Anderson said he used to live in Hamden. (I would investigate, but I wasn’t positive.) He did work with Mr. Elston, but by that time, most of the responsibility was with the CT Health Dept, not the Agricultural Experiment Station. They provided technical assistance, but the state (Mr. Elston had all the equipment) Health Dept. from the Madison office did the work. Our discussion then turned to Malaria, and the 1930’s Works Public Administration (WPA) program of grid ditching coastal salt marshes. In the late 1980’s, the state abandoned the concept of periodic cleaning of these ditches for a more natural concept called “open marsh water management” or OMWM, for short. This policy pretty much abandoned the previous method of mosquito control according to Dr. Anderson. I recalled a conversation in the early 1980’s, Mr. Elston made (I think at the Experiment Station or at one of the Coastal Cove and Embayment Board meetings, I’m not certain) about the dangers of abandoning the grid ditches. Mr. Elston warned of mosquito bred disease if the state abandoned its long mosquito control efforts. Dr. Anderson said Julius was a fan of grid ditches, but it was more of a mosquito control than disease control, although the Health Department still ran the program even the name “Vector” referred to an earlier time when such a disease link was made to mosquitoes. I recalled that in an earlier research effort, I learned that the editor of a local newspaper, New Era in Chester, CT had died from one of the last malaria outbreaks in 1938. Dr. Anderson agreed that the late 1930’s was the last of the Malaria mosquito spread disease outbreaks . It was “patchy” two or three cases here and three there – sometimes 10 or 20 but nothing like hundreds at the turn of the century or after World War I. For Director Anderson the climate had changed— cold, and delayed springs had reduced mosquito breeding areas and populations. One statement that the former mosquito and vector chief had made (Julius Elston) was that abandoning the grid ditches would again lead to widespread mosquito borne disease. With the advent of West Nile could there be a possible link? He didn’t believe so; the species of mosquitoes were different. Malaria spread by more of the salt water or marine species and Eastern Equine Encephalitis and West Nile Virus spread also by a freshwater species. He did say that the first OMWM plan was to maintain the ditches but plug them, retaining water inside and the fish species that consumed them (mosquito larvae). But to his knowledge, most of the ditches weren’t periodically cleaned or plugged (18 years). They let them fill in he said. I agreed and what I had observed was the perimeter or circumference ditches had filled – preventing salt water like “moats” and that had often blocked the spread of Phragmites. An introduced erosion control plant as once a Soil Conservation Service practice during the construction of Route 95. Once the circumference ditches filled in, non-native Phragmites often then spread across them into many salt marshes. This reed had the capacity to transition habitat types even with sea level rise. Dr. Anderson also mentioned that some of the worst mosquito breeding areas were behind road and tidal railroad causeways, areas with reduced salt water exchanges now subject to intense Phragmites growths.

Did the abandonment of the Vector Division previous mosquito control programs create an environment for West Nile? He didn’t believe so, stating that the Malaria outbreak was the “disease of poverty” while West Nile was the “disease of opportunity.” He further discussed that Malaria was being brought into this country by immigrants and returning soldiers` at the turn of the century – often with inadequate resources and not able to obtain quinine to kill the parasites. He attributed a huge Malaria outbreak in Greenwich in 1913 to this – some 900 cases – it was quite a panic because of its link to mosquitoes—people getting the parasite from marine mosquitoes which quickly became the “disease of anyone” because anyone could be bitten by a mosquito, rich or poor, young or old, it didn’t matter. Public panic set in and Greenwich ordered all its marshes filled within one mile of the coast, including some brackish and freshwater marshes. Neighboring communities soon followed including New Haven and the Boulevard Bayview Park Salt Pond was filled during this time is now baseball fields adjacent to The Sound School. A large beautifully cut granite stone seawall that extends under Route 95 is all that remains of this once large salt pond. New Haven even formed a special committee in 1912 to raise money to fill in its salt marshes. The next year (1914), Greenwich Malaria cases dropped to 37 according to Dr. Anderson. Of course, the immense drop in cases (outbreak) in the public’s mind was due to the filling of the marshes. It was visible and measurable, and quickly became public policy, but he felt the increased medical supplies, public assistance and quinine was winning the malaria battle. By that time, WPA and Soil Conservation Service got involved in the 1930’s, malaria was on its way out. It was getting colder, and freezing up shallow marshes. That had not been the case earlier; marshes remained open and the mosquito season was extended . He also mentioned that the saltwater species was the primary vector for malaria but that it was already on its way out from ditching. He also mentioned that the saltwater species was gruesome in its biting characteristics it’s more aggressive than its freshwater relative. We exchanged some references about Tom’s Creek- Webster Point, Madison at the west end of the Hammonasset River. After the ditches were cleaned, mosquitoes were fewer in number. Dr. Anderson agreed, the state after the Greenwich outbreak the state decided to destroy the mosquito habitat by ditching and draining instead of filling.

I recalled some fisheries history research into the Hammonasset area, in the histories of Guilford and Madison and accounts by area marsh (East River) resident Charles Beebe, late of Madison, that the Native Americans would come in early spring to June plant corn, beans and squash and then mostly leave, returning in late August during the so-called “Indian Summer” to harvest crops and collect seafood for the long winter ahead. Upon returning to coastal areas, especially in the Neck River section and Hammonasset section of Madison, near Clinton, they would “fire the marshes.” This was quite a concern to the first settlers who had settled inland away from the coastal areas, largely because of biting insects. The marsh fires would kill the mosquitoes on the marshes (I guess the first mosquito control program in Connecticut) but renew salt marsh plant growth attracting game for hunting.
The insects were so fierce in the Madison-Guilford area that even up until the late 1880’s, Meigs Point at Hammonasset Beach was known as “Mosquito Point.” One day when I was watching the planes take off, Mr. Sherman Griswold discussed how his family had obtained the property (which was operated as a small airport until recently), in part because the state considered it of low value, and he was even surprised to get the bid. He mentioned that the mosquitoes were so bad on a slight easterly wind from Clinton Harbor; it precluded outside work, but he figured people in planes wouldn’t be bothered. He also referred to the area as once called “mosquito lands” which meant it was hard to farm and marshy. The good days were the northwesterly breezes, which tended to blow the mosquitoes out to sea. Mr. Griswold mentioned it was particularly bad at dawn and dusk. To eliminate the marshy areas, he had brought in a lot of fill to create the airport runway. He had obtained it from the sand pit on park land at Webster Point.

Our comments returned to West Nile, could it be linked to changes in mosquito control – he doubted that, the Bronx was the spot many researchers feel the center of the West Nile outbreak here in this area. Dr. Anderson felt it might have been brought over by an international visitor (s) but they did know the original “hot spot” was in the Bronx section of New York City. I mentioned the lobster issue, mosquito control; he doubted if the Malathion was responsible for lobster mortality believing instead several factors (he called them stressors), were involved in the lobster deaths, high heat and low oxygen in shallow waters seemed to him as the most probable causes.
When asked about mosquito control, Dr. Anderson felt the grid ditches should be cleaned and cleared (the term cleaning is often used, but the ditches now contained mud, silt and decayed organic matter such as dead marsh grass and leaves). Without it he felt the mosquito population would rebound along the coast, for him it was two different issues, controlling disease and controlling mosquitoes. He felt the disease issue was very complex and difficult to label any one issue for West Nile, for example, West Nile might have settled here because our winters are warmer or perhaps the mosquito population was larger that contributed to its spread or that we have more birds that can help vector the disease. He wasn’t certain about the incidence of disease what he was certain about, the abandonment of ditch maintenance would lead to more mosquitoes, but that couldn’t be directly traced to an increase in disease. He also acknowledged that some marshes were tremendously over ditched as WPA workers were often paid by the linear foot, so the incentive to put in as many ditches as possible was evident. Restoring the marsh perimeter ditches could, he felt, help keep Phragmites at the banks. Once across the perimeter “moat” of salt water, that perimeter aspect was clearly becoming clear in Fence Creek (Madison) by the Route 1 road culvert, it quickly spread. Here Phragmites had “jumped” the perimeter ditch and spread out to the creek edge in several locations.

The Clinton Hammonasset River area, for example, had a huge hatch of saltwater mosquitoes on August 2, 2008 according to Dr. Anderson. This species comes out about dusk. I agreed, as I had been at Hammonasset Beach for a family picnic on August 4th. We had a great afternoon, but just about sunset the wind died and we literally had to gather up our belongings and run to our cars. I had the beach blanket and had to put part of it over my head and run to the car. Looking back, I could see about a dozen mosquitoes chasing after me . He agreed and wasn’t surprised, without some mosquito control, he felt sorry for the coastal residents living in the area especially since the climate had turned warmer. He had noticed an increase in ticks also carrying Lyme disease. When it was cold in the 1950s, ticks were rare compared to today. To him there was a direct climate link.

The final part of our conversation revolved about the current types of mosquito control, insecticide, larvacide, and bacterial control. Dr. Anderson said spot treatments were effective for short term with knocking them down (the population) quick but short- 10 days or so. Those methods he described as “reactive” to a problem. The situation is so bad you need to do them, etc. The better approach Dr. Anderson felt, was to be proactive, such as the state health department had been before. The Old Lyme marshes had been sprayed since the 1960’s (and when Ella Grasso was Governor) and a couple of hot spots in Stratford and Milford, but grid ditching and draining pools (much like measures asked of the public today to drain old tires, tubs, buckets, etc) had prevented the habitat that allowed hatching, they can only survive if they have the habitat that was the point of the old method removal, or alter the habitat and you won’t have to deal with the hatch. He felt a lot more selective spraying was going on more now than before. When West Nile is present, we spray but wouldn’t it be better to remove the habitat Dr. Anderson asked?

As for the salt water problem (marshes) make them tidal again the plug in the ditches was a good idea, it would trap fish in them who would eat the larvae, but the ditches were left to fill in, and had wet spots depressions that collected both fresh water that floated in these old ditches were perfect hatching habitat for both fresh and saltwater mosquitoes. Small salt ponds were the way to go—deep enough to withstand high summer heat, but not stagnant so fish could enter and leave.

When asked specifically if the grid ditching should continue, if it should happen again, he replied, “Yes, or the mosquito populations could, under the right conditions, be like they were a century ago – brutal.” He chuckled, “What did you say they called Hammonasset years ago?” I said “Mosquito Point.”

“Well, he concluded, it must have been a good name.” I thanked him for his time and comments.
By the 1960s public policy towards salt marshes from disease had greatly changed from the disease spreading mosquito habitat to one of great value. This was written a year after the original paper. It describes the huge difference in public opinion then policy as the value of salt marsh habitats becomes known. The landmark case was the Guilford-Madison East River system salt marsh.

EPA Long Island Sound Study
Habitat Restoration Initiative
Salt Hay Production Funds Early Guilford Public Schools

How The East River / Neck River Ecosystem Was Saved
A Look Back with Thanks to Anne Conover
Timothy C. Visel
The Sound School Regional Vocational Aquaculture School
July 13, 2009
Prepared for Sandy Breslin of the Connecticut Audubon Society

Over forty years ago, a group of individuals met to discuss the East River marsh system as a unique and valuable habitat to estuarine species. Although especially not anti-development, they sought to preserve the salt marshes as they are today, largely untouched by development. Leading the preservation effort then was the Guilford Conservation Commission Chairman Anne Conover.

At the state level, Commissioner Joseph Gill of the Connecticut Department of Agriculture and National Resources was especially concerned. The state has suffered huge habitat losses in the coastal zone and sought help from two sister state agencies, the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife and Water Resources and asked one question, “Can we save it?”

On April 3, 1968, Anne Conover sought to contact then Governor John Dempsey, but talked to his assistant, Mr. Ahern.

“I told him that we were most anxious that the Governor get this story, because of his obligation to the voters, not just for this present situation, but for the future; he asked me to write the whole ‘story’ to the Governor.”

A few days later, a strongly worded letter arrived from the United States Department of the Interior’s Fish & Wildlife Service. In it, Richard E. Griffith wrote, “Estuaries such as the East River are widely recognized as one of the most naturally fertile areas anywhere in the world.” By June, the state was committed to buy it, which they did.

Today, this ecosystem remains remarkably intact, and a good example of low impact sustainable resource use. Docks are found on the Neck River, the East River has a boat launch ramp, owned by the state. Ospreys are frequent visitors and build nests to raise young, just a few feet away from houses at Circle Beach. The area supports recreational activities such as kayaking, fishing and blue crabbing. The oyster beds in the Neck and East Rivers continue to be productive. A low tide, you can still see the old corduroy roads made from slab wood that allowed carts to haul salt hay to be sold to fund the earliest Guilford schools. Look for them on the westerly bank of the Neck River (once Guilford) opposite the old “Madison” Town Dock. The Neck River currently supports once of the largest remaining Terrapin populations in North America.

It’s hard to imagine how different this area would look today were it not for the activism and dedication of Anne Conover, Chairman of the Guilford Conservation Commission during the 1960’s.

Much thanks.

Information obtained from State of Connecticut Department of Fisheries and Wildlife files turned over to the DEP Maine Fisheries Division in 1973.

Phragmities Alters Tidal Exchanges (2013)
As part of new mosquito control measures (update post 1989) the invasive reed Phragmities has in many cases displaced native salt marsh plant species and blocked (trapped) organic matter increasing the potential habitat for coastal mosquito populations. Part of this discussion included a habitat history for Phragmities also, as control measures may include dredging to remove growths and restore full tidal circulation to blocked coastal marshes. Some of these marshes that contain thick Phragmities growths also contain viable mosquito breeding habitats and thick Phragmities growths often complicates mosquito habitat control. A short habitat history for Phragmities was added in during January 2013.

The Habitat History of Phragmites – Addendum
January 2013
Tim Visel
The Sound School

In researching our strain of Phragmites, it came from (apparently) Chinese missionaries who smuggled seeds from Mongolia (not Australia). It was brought over in 1910-1913 (US Dept. of Agriculture Yearbook) as a potential hemp substitute – its reed had long been a building material for roofs and side walls and agriculture researchers thought it was a potential strong fiber for rope. (In the 1950s Russia made plywood from it). It was cultured in a greenhouse (Washington, DC) and brought to the Kentucky Agriculture Experiment Station on or about July 1918 Bulletin 338. By 1921, the Kentucky Station was putting out fact sheets on how to control it – leading me to believe they already had a problem; it had already escaped from them. An old name was phragmites communis, not Australis.
By 1924 the early Soil Stabilization Service, precursor to the Soil Conservation Service noticed its unique ability to hold a steep grade from eroding – especially railroad grades and washouts in rivers. Some of the first plantings were along railroad tracks. That happened after a series of sensational rail crossing trestle fires out west when oil and tar covered wood structures caught fire. Railroads needed a steep grade plant to hold soil on converted wood crossings. In the 1930s it was planted along inland rail routes. In 1931-34 it was planted in New Jersey as an erosion control method and later became of the plant of choice for steep highway grades. That is how it was introduced into Connecticut, by Soil Conservation Service to control steep grades along 95. When it matured and seeds dropped into the water it spread into the salt marshes (eye witness accounts of seeds being applied from helicopters in Madison). Vaiuso Farms also confirmed its planting in Branford that is why even today Phragmites can be seen on both sides of Route 95 in this Branford stretch. Before the I-95 construction, in a 1980s interview with me, Mr. Vaiuso said he had none of the plant.

The only real control method is dredging to remove it, making salt ponds or direct applications of rock salt. This was most effective in eastern Connecticut (rock salt) -- I’m not a fan of herbicide control; some of the compound ends up in clams and it doesn’t last that long. Phragmites is an aggressive plant able to modify its own habitat – similar to eelgrass. Burning and cutting just helps to develop its roots – to be honest dredging is the only long term control.

To read this complete report with historical references, please contact Susan Weber at susan.weber@new-haven.k12.ct.us for the full 17 page report.
The HIFFM IMEP Newsletter is possible by an Inter-District Cooperative Grant (Public Act 94 -1) and regional marine education bulletins can be obtained or accessed on the Adult Education and Outreach directory by accessing the Sound School website:
www.soundschool.com/publications%201.html.

For information about The Sound School website, publications, and / or alumni contacts, please contact Taylor Samuels at taylor.samuels@new-haven.k12.ct.us

The Sound School is a Regional High School Agriculture Science and Technology Center enrolling students from 23 participating Connecticut communities.

Program reports are available upon request. For more information about New Haven Environmental Monitoring Initiative for IMEP reports, please contact Susan Weber, The Sound School Adult Education and Outreach Program Coordinator, at susan.weber@new-haven.k12.ct.us.