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Salt Marshes - A Climate Change Bacterial Battlefield

Sea Level Rise, Climate Cycles and Salt Marshes
The Blue Crab Forum™ Environment and Conservation #7
Capstone Question: Will Salt Marsh Habitats in High Heat
Kill Fish and Shellfish Eggs
Will We Value The Salt Marshes of Tomorrow?
An ISSP/Capstone Proposal Series
ASTE Standards NRE #4, 5, 6, 9
Tim Visel, The Sound School – July 2015
{IMEP Fisheries Habitat Series can be accessed on the Blue Crab Forum™
eelgrass – oystering and fishing thread reports #1 to 55}
CT Fish Talk™ Saltwater Reports
This is a two-part report

Environment and Conservation #7 – The Blue Crab Forum™ Part (2)

I want to thank the Blue Crab Forum™ for allowing me to post in a new thread – Environment and Conservation and also Connecticut Fish Talk™ for reposting these reports. This is my seventh report about bacteria and nitrogen cycles. Coastal habitats once praised for valuable habitat services are impacted by bacteria and at times become nature’s killing fields, eliminating critical nursery and spawning grounds for many inshore fish and shellfish species. Coastal fishers often observe these events, mats of bottom bacteria, chocolate or purple waters, brown tides, blue crab jubilees or just fish kills. Beyond these public events bacteria and nitrogen change the habitat qualities that we recognize today as “good” into something that is “bad” for inshore fish and shellfishing. Out of sight and rarely discussed, these conflicting bacteria strains have important implications for estuarine health and seafood production worldwide.

#7 Salt Marshes a Climate Change Bacterial Battlefield 9/10/2015

#6 Bacteria Disease and Warm Water Concerns 7/23/2015

#5 Nitrogen, Inshore Habitats and Climate Change 1/12/2015

#4 Black Mayonnaise Impacts to Blue Crabs and Oysters 1972 to Present 10/16/2014
#3 A Caution Regarding Black Mayonnaise Habitats 10/2/2014

#2 Black Mayonnaise, Leaves and Blue Crab Habitats 9/30/2014

#1 What About Sapropel and the Conowingo Dam? 9/29/2014

Fishers should follow this bacterial conflict as more and more information comes in regarding habitat quality and important recreational fisheries such as striped bass, winter flounder and blue crabs or lobster habitats are subject to bacterial impacts.
I respond to all emails at tim.visel@new-haven.k12.ct.us

This is a two part report: this is part 2.

A growing environmental movement soon saw the need for a massive educational effort to inform public policy makers about the value of salt marshes and in time sought out the education community to provide such an effort. At first the process seemed sincere – after all salt marshes were important and integral parts of the shore and the web life in it. But over time a bias in the research (much funded by environmental protection interests) became apparent to assist preservation and conservation efforts (It was the early 1970s in which public opinion changed from areas that needed to be filled) of salt marshes. In time the value of salt marshes was highlighted and overtime increased – organic matter generation (grams of organic matter from square meter) and the grasses that lived in these grasses promoted the value to the marine “food web” one of largest education components (products) of this effort. While salt marshes are important to numerous species it is a harsh environment in New England extreme heat and cold – they have far different ecological roles and “value” in different temperatures or climates.

The University researchers often responded to this public policy agenda and naturally brought to the public information about the value of salt marshes – during that period in which the short oxygen nitrogen cycle had won – “forgotten” was The Great Heat (1890s), a previous time when sulfur reducing bacteria had won – sending oxygen requiring organisms into full retreat. The “dead zones” created by sulfur bacteria or the toxic sulfides released by them so foul smelling that it would drive people at times from the shore itself in the 1890s. The fish kills, red tides and black water deaths (now linked to sulfide purging of organic deposits) of the last century were forgotten – the long sulfur nitrogen cycle was replaced by studies of the short oxygen nitrogen cycle – it wasn’t that researchers did not access these historical records many did, it just did not fit what public policy decisions makers asked about or what conservation groups petitioned to do. The bias came in around the value and benefits of salt marshes – from organic matter sources to bacterial respiration to ecological services. In times of cold and sufficient oxygen levels salt marshes provided important habitat services to the species that the public could appreciate as seafood (USFWS Paul Galtsoff is credited with making that public policy connection) but in heat and low energy these same salt marshes became natures sulfur killing fields – toxic to many terms of good value marine life while becoming a source of pollutants and death to larval life forms. That side is rarely presented to public policy decision makers but it is there none the less.

Fishers have experienced these bacterial habitat battles by the seafood they later catch, and a cycle of abundance that over the centuries would suddenly appear and just as quickly disappear. Sometimes the appearance of new seafood was a “shock” or surprise. These cycles give us a picture of what hot and cold periods would look like – warm in which sulfur will triumph in the shallows, cold in which oxygen life forms prevail or “return.” And the organisms that shape the rise and fall of sulfur in seawater is bacteria. They control to large extent the survival of the smallest life forms to the abundance of “forage” fish. At times even adult fish can be killed by the residues of these bacterial battles – known as fish kills they frequently happen in the shallows.

Aquaculturists have known about bacterial habitat wars by using the same filtering mechanisms which nature provided. Certain bacteria will convert some of the toxic ammonia compounds to nitrogen gas, others will change ammonia to less toxic ready nitrogen forms of nitrite and nitrate each in its own subject to chemical processes. In closed systems and wastewater treatment plants we have cultured the “good bacteria” to make toxic compounds less toxic and facilitate nitrogen compounds forming a gas but in high heat these systems “fail” as the key ingredient in these bacterial reactions is oxygen. (Often referred to as activated sludge). Once oxygen is removed or lowered the sulfur bacteria “win” and the recipe for oxygen species down fall has already been scripted – sulfate a sulfur cycle compound that has four oxygen atoms around it is abundant in seawater. Once the water warms the oxygen bacteria die off and the sulfate bacteria take over organic matter reduction and in the process release sulfur compounds toxic to oxygen requiring organisms – global warming would do much to change many salt marsh shaking current environmental beliefs and values namely –

- Greater amounts of deadly toxic (antibiotic resistant bacteria strains) will be found in warm shallow organic deposits such as mud flats and salt marshes – some harmful even to us (That is already happening).

- The good bacteria (many sustained by nitrate) will give way to sulfate reduction in salt marshes – releasing ammonia compounds that sustain toxic algal blooms. In fact salt marshes will discharge now nitrogen “pollution.”

- Bacteria counts in warm water are naturally higher and shallow areas (swimming fishing areas) will show naturally higher levels. (In the 1950s, 1960s LIS water was colder and contained less bacteria) increased leaves and storm water organics will feed bacteria in or near salt marshes. These deposits will culture enormous quantities of sulfur reducing bacteria.

- Algal blooms prevent ultraviolet light from killing bacteria – a common filter system for pools and aquaculture for UV light tubes to work water must be clear. Cloudy water will have more bacteria, ammonia discharged from water will nourish brown tides – making this condition even worse.

- Natures filter which uses nitrate as a low oxygen buffer will fail producing increasing amounts of ammonia low oxygen conditions (Waste Water Treatment operators knew that nitrate was essential to keep filters alive in hot weather).

- Years of environmental policies of non disturbance – anti dredging will give way to deeper colder water dredged to remove the food for bacteria in stagnant poorly flushed areas. This is equivalent to aeration by mechanical means – energy is one of the few things we can do in a warming climate.

- Oyster fishers would naturally rake off leaves from oyster beds each spring before they could kill oysters – later these leaves in hot weather became Sapropelic – the rotting of organic matter without oxygen creating a sulfur rich ooze Sapropel. This is a form of turning the terrestrial composts – both to remove it and oxygenate it. Sapropel has also left a habitat history in coastal core samples. Deep Sapropel once disturbed will provide a sulfuric acid wash – minimized by the presence of estuarine shell. Farmers in the last century had Sapropel tested by the New Haven Agricultural Experiment Station which consistently reported high sulfuric acid levels. To offset this “harmful acidity” they blended in oyster shell (lobster shell was used in the Northern Maritimes).

- Nitrite and nitrate nitrogen compounds will no longer be considered foes but friends in this bacterial conflict. Evidence is already coming in that human nitrogen forms help prevent sulfur production and feeds natural bacterial systems (called annamox bacteria) that take ammonia out of seawater. Bacteria filters in the natural environment take time to build and respond to cycles as well. Aquaculture closed systems also have similar bacterial “filter start up” periods.

- Dead zones will be associated to organic matter and temperature – dredging will be one of just a few tools we have to influence both allowing cool waters into warm shallows and depriving bacteria of its culture media, its food. Cooler water can contain greater amounts of oxygen, but in heat greater amounts of sulfate as well.

- This bacterial conflict has a direct impact over time to the rise and fall of coastal fisheries. Oak leaves are particularly damaging as its leaf is both tough (complex cellulose) and contains wax (as a protection against water loss in droughts). Oak leaves during dry periods will have a shine to protect the moisture that is the paraffin wax. As sulfate reducing bacteria consume them they leave the wax behind the source of “sticky” shallow bottoms. As this occurs (when the wax (they cannot digest it) seals soil pores) forming Sapropel below. In addition oak leaves have a low pH, 3.5 and release tannic acid which tends to clump marine algal helping organic deposits to purge ammonia and sulfides – oak leaves can turn healthy bottoms into sulfur death traps.

- Sulfate reducing bacteria naturally complex metal salts and over time various metal sulfides can increase in these organic deposits. Over time (SRB) sulfur reducing bacteria concentrate these metals (including it seems under the correct conditions, even mercury compounds) especially aluminum which is acutely toxic to nearly all forms of marine life. Some of the heaviest concentrations of metals and toxic discharges will come from salt marshes. The affinity of Sapropel (sulfur reducing organic mater) to bind heavy metals so well it is considered overseas a method of cleaning up metal acid mining waste waters EPA investigated this possibility in 1982 and published some of the first papers suggesting the use of sulfur reducing bacteria to clean up acidic mine wastes in 1973 (see also EPA Study Tabak: et. al 2003).

Sulfur Sapropel Cycle – What fishers report –

This bacteria change which in itself may take decades, has a direct connection to shallow water nursery habitat, frequently termed “critical or essential” today. Many fisheries depend upon these salt marsh habitats – creeks, ponds, coves and bays for segments of their life cycles, the egg and larval forms which contribute to diversity and biological richness – in the presence of oxygen.

In the presence of sulfur compounds these areas are now barren and quite opposite, the perception of today mud flats that are nearly devoid of life (some sulfur tolerant worms can be present) and purge ammonia in high heat and sulfides in cold. Both sulfide and ammonia are highly toxic to fish and shellfish, (even eelgrass) it is the rise and fall of many species that depends upon inshore nursery areas remaining viable habitats – they can look the same but have deadly consequences until bacteria types reverse.

In hot periods of few storms organic pulse loading (after tropical rains for example) can overwhelm oxygen bacteria as sulfur reducing bacteria “take over” – in fact the same habitats that for so long were valuable and significant become natures killing fields wiping out reproductive capacity before fish and shellfish hatch – these toxins destroy the eggs themselves. They rob the seafood cradle. Years later as recruitment failures mount the fisheries collapse. This is the “empty net syndrome” so often found in the historical literature and often attributed to “overfishing.” Hurricane Floyd while not devastating to the shore contained heavy rains that washed huge amounts of organic matter into the marshes and contributed to the Long Island Sound lobster die off.

Salt Marshes Habitat Failures -

The war between these bacteria have generally not been recognized by the marine community, some may be attributed to the public policy commitment of protection – another might be a funding bias called the funding effect, that grant supported research often has a institutional bias (whether we recognize it or not). I feel it is a combination of both – for so long salt marshes have been a fixture of environmental protection – as something we should protect (which we should I agree) as it hard to explain that if the waters continue to warm – salt marshes will succumb to sulfate reduction – become rich in heavy metals and purge deadly aluminum and ammonia. Some highly toxic alone, like sulfide and purge substances toxic to oxygen requiring sea life. The concept that Sapropel bottoms can produce toxins is opposite the non disturbance/no dredging policies of the last half century – cold water and energy (dredging) are most likely two of most important tools to fight sulfate reduction – non disturbance is actually a policy that in this case helps “sulfur win.” When sulfur wins the seafood we value loose.

Salt Marshes Habitat Cycles –

Species that utilize salt marshes and have longer life cycles have a built in safety feature, they are outlast short term habitat failures. (Hot climate cycles) short lived species such as bay scallops therefore show wide swings in abundance. That happened with striped bass – the young of the year index failed to produce for several years viable young – although suspected chemical pollution (that certainly did not help) these inshore habitats likely failed before other habitats were available, they became hot and in low dissolved conditions sulfur reducing. When that happened ammonia levels most likely surged fueling opportunistic algal species that need ammonia – algal blooms strange to us (and deadly to others) we call today harmful or HABS for short. For years Striped Bass young of the year habitats had “failure” stripers can live much longer than bay scallops and have a chance to overcome these short in duration habitat failures. Since sulfur reducing bacteria like hot shallow areas rich in organic matter they deliver the ammonia in areas that are also poorly flushed – so most HABS get their start in the shallows (most HABS cysts also in habitat these shallow areas even red tide species) and extend out when these algal blooms persist they take any available oxygen with them as surface bacteria break them down on the immediate surface – a thin film of bacteria oxygen reducers and the ammonia surges get stronger, fueling the HABS and the cycle builds upon itself until storms or colder weather breaks it. Much of this habitat cycle is first noticeable in shallow warm areas of salt marshes fishers often noticed blue crabs trying to climb out of the water during ‘events” when the sulfur cycle briefly triumphs in the historical literature down south they are called blue crab “jubilees.”

Over Fishing and Nursery Habitats – Salt Marsh Indicators

As many species can live past a short term habitat failure – over fishing can occur and many times masks the habitat failure – most of which start in the shallow salt marshes deprived of energy – from natural or manmade. That is why winter flounder fishers first noticed “black mayonnaise” accumulating in these “quiet” low flow poorly flushed areas – in eastern CT it was often behind railroad tidal restricted causeways. {But it can be any restriction, a culvert bridge restriction or dam – all have the ability to slow water and collect organic matter. Many blue crabbers have experience this sulfur smelling compost while blue crabbing.

It was the shellfishers and winter flounder fisheries that reported first Sapropel deposits accumulating behind them. When shellfishing areas where closed in Connecticut (from bacterial levels) inshore shellfish beds were deprived of “harvest energy” the raking scratching and lifting of leaf deposits that kept the marine soil cultivated and exposed clean shell cultch for oyster spat falls. When these inshore areas many containing essential habitats for other species failed (they were covered with organic matter) they lost important ecological surfaces and in high heat – sulfate reduction produced Sapropel.

Striped bass for example would continue to lay eggs in habitats that in late summer that later turned deadly. As no year classes survived eventually a fishery failure occurred, and lead to strict catch limits even moratoriums in some states. Eventually some areas recovered sulfur bacteria had eaten huge volumes of marine compost Sapropel now suspected to have arrived in a pulse following Hurricanes Agnes in 1972. It took almost two decades for these habitats to recover (my research) and again produce good young of the year – a series of storms can also sweep out Sapropel and the sulfur reducing bacteria with them. This can cause reversals most often dramatic after hurricanes. (The replacement of Sapropel eelgrass with kelp cobblestones after the 1938 Hurricane for example) and return under cold conditions oxygen where fisheries continue under many years of poor or no year classes it can collapse – giving the appearance of over fishing (this does not include discard waste of fishing mortality) but was really a series of habitat failures that in time produced a fishery failure. The Southern New England die-off of lobsters in 1898 and 1998 as past and current examples.

When these shallow habitats salt marshes habitat are more closely examined evidence from other studies indicated they most likely became Sapropelic – Sulfur “had won” and had turned against the oxygen life forms. When that happened aluminum most likely leached from marsh organic deposits (helped by acidic river washes from Tannin) and killed eggs by the millions, we have an example of the striped bass in the 1980s. They life cycle of the striped bass enables it for a while to outline the short term habitat failure and can recover as habitat conditions improve. The predator prey species adds another feature a good year class of stripers when forage fish is at a low level. This is what I believe happened in 1932, the best year class of stripers were apparently born when there was little food (forage) and starved. Not only do the species we consume have cycles but the forage and prey species have them as well.

Sea Level Rise and Salt Marshes

Although it is difficult to imagine and only those with experience in bacteria culture media will recognize what salt marshes can do – they are natural organic supply (media) culture for sulfate reducing bacteria – the species that will turn salt marshes into a battle zone. Sea water rich in sulfate (what SRB need) will now flow over the marshes bathing them in this sulfur/oxygen molecules as salt marshes now “burn” into the sulfur cycle. This has happened before during the warm (hot) period of 1880-1920. Nichols a botanist and researcher in this period often comments on salt marsh sudden “collapse” – pools left in salt marshes as sulfur reduction below eats the marshes from below – eventually releasing pockets of gas and the salt marsh surface sinks into a sink hole (This can happen on land as well – sink holes and areas in which wood (organic matter) was buried during construction projects). In high heat the sulfur reduction takes place deep within the salt marsh deposits themselves and can leave depression or salt water pannes instead. Researchers in the early teens had already noticed a sulfur link – in the heat the sulfur content of this hot surface pools became very high (sulfide) and helps explain the hardiness of these marsh plants to tolerate sulfides – up to a point – then a die off would occur in high heat it is not surprising that often the peat now is “barren” and easily washed away.

Salt Marshes and Deadly Bacteria

Salt marshes with rich amounts of partially decayed organic matter give rise to the first sulfur reducing bacteria. They act as solar collectors warming in shallows as water can become “hot” and oxygen levels low. The first necrotic bacteria disease for winter flounder came from the shallows. Lobster shell disease also appeared first over organic sludge in the 105 dumpsite, it also is implicated know for vibrio bacteria series and other flesh eating bacteria (often termed antibiotic resistant). As the climate warms these bacterial strains flourish in hot organic matter and appear to be increasing – as reports of dangerous bacterial infections appear to be on the rise as well. But all shorelines have bacteria – a film of bacteria coats sand, pebbles almost any surface. The ones in colder water are oxygen requiring and helpful. Some of the first bio filters enclosed system aquaculture used oyster shell bio bacteria surfaces later a rotating contact filter had bacteria exposed to oxygen. The industry today had gone over to a multi surface pack or ball in motion to help oxygen requiring bacteria to convert toxic ammonia to less toxic nitrogen compounds. (Termed also bio extraction).

That is how in the natural environment the “good bacteria” help remove ammonia from the sea water – they need oxygen and when it is not in the water, use nitrite sulfur reducing bacteria strains increase – the hot water bacterial infections that have plagued fishers and beach goers of recent times (and serious if not life threatening bacterial infections have resulted).

In heat it is the marshes and soft organic deposits in them will culture the first generations of sulfur reducing bacteria – which has already occurred during long very hot weather and can be found in those habitats. As these strains use sulfate as an oxygen source (and sulfate is not limiting in sea water) – eventually sulfur reducing bacteria will “win” and dominate the bacterial spectrum. When that occurs the products of salt marshes we value will turn negative – bacteria that rots flesh, complexes heavy metals produces ammonia will cause new habitat profiles. Many will not be liked or “valued” some outright dangerous to us, and the marshes of the 1950s and 1960s will not resemble the future salt marsh habitats of the sulfur cycle.

Summary

Did we Impact The Future of Salt Marsh Filters

As the climate in southern New England warmed we had indicators of bacterial changes – lobsters and winter flounder had bacterial infections, vibrio series closed shellfish beds and bacteria counts on beaches went up. The flounder fin rot disease was mostly likely the first warning bell raised by fishers but bacteria is natures way of cleaning up excess and form complex filtering systems. Some of which we use in closed system aquaculture and on a much larger scale waste water treatment plants – after all the term activated sludge is a nice way of saying bacteria rich organisms –we depend upon nitrogen filters to replicate what nature does naturally.

Since 1972 nitrogen has been linked to zones of low oxygen and programs have been initiated to remove the excess. In this process nitrate was removed so was nitrite, nitrate was a secondary oxygen source for good bacteria filters, and nitrite the source of a bacteria group that use it with Ammonia – both natural filter systems. With annamox bacteria the result is the conversion of ammonia to nitrogen gas. Both these filter systems would act to lower ammonia, the first by preventing its formation by sulfur reducing bacteria – the second by using nitrite to power annamox bacteria strains that would remove it. Research today in looking at these complex bacteria filter systems and removing nitrite and nitrate in reducing water dissolved forms slow natures, natural filtering capacity? By removing these nitrogen factions in low oxygen conditions, did that open the door so to speak to sulfate reduction – ammonia levels would soar and appear to by purging from hot organic matter deposits. The first ammonia plants merely heated organic matter to produce it (see IMEP series #26). (The American Fertilizer Magazine Jan. 1903, Vol 28, pg 14).

One of the current questions is that nitrite/nitrate removal impact natural filter systems and did that influence high levels of ammonia from organic deposits. Some of the first results of ammonia levels from organic matter (Sapropel) are coming in and they are large numbers. The nitrogen compound flux (commonly called benthic flux) is now showing large amounts of ammonia the primary nutrient source that sustains Brown Tides (Harmful Algal Blooms). In other words by removing nitrite and nitrate did we just make room for more ammonia production toxic to sea life itself but also sustains HABS which also create different toxins damaging to more sea life, including us with the red tides? It’s a huge question and one that involves nitrogen removal programs along our coasts. Sapropel formation and the chemical processes within them first occur in salt marshes, in terms of salt marsh ecology these factors appear to be missed in most of the recent nitrogen studies.

Salt Marshes of The Future?

As what will happen to salt marshes in the future has much in what direct bacteria pathway is “open” and at what climate period. So much of what bacteria prevails “wins” in a long term habitat battle. For dominance of each fishers’ have already experienced by observations of fish and shellfish cycles of abundance – in hot periods of relatively few storms. The sulfate – sulfur cycle pathway is “open” and we see die offs and species shifts. In times of cold the oxygen nitrate pathway is open as bacteria consumes organic matter in the presence of oxygen, we also see a species shift as well. The cold water species suddenly “return.”

In continued heat and few storms salt marsh organic deposits will enter sulfate reduction – Sapropel will start to form with all of its deadly by products. Salt marshes may recede below sea levels in tidally restricted areas. Offsetting this subsistence is an increase in organic matter (primarily leaves) that are captured in estuaries but this organic matter (primarily leaves) that are captured in estuaries in high heat low energy become Sapropel. Salt marshes are merely Sapropel deposits that have been colonized by grasses. When chemical processes occur in Sapropel will eventually occur in salt marshes leaving holes that become salt pannes. This has also been recorded in the historical literature – as sea levels rise sulfate in it will wash over salt marshes as they die back in the zones that obtain the most sulfate (usually creek banks because sulfate will flow in with the tides) and get “hot” with summer sun.

Eelgrass has a role in the final end of salt marshes it builds up along the edges of channels slowing tidal flows – less and less oxygen will become available – gradually opening the sulfur – sulfate pathway – closing the oxygen – nitrate pathway and Sapropel shedding of ammonia, aluminum and sulfide all toxic to marine life.

Marshes will produce sulfide rotten egg smells as they did during the recent hot periods – at the same time complex heavy metals and purge aluminum in deadly concentrations. We have two studies one in Guilford (1994) and the Herring River Wellfleet (2012) tidally restricted that became a nutrient pollution source (ammonium) and seep toxic aluminum. Salt marshes will become natures killing fields as the sulfur cycle tries to end the oxygen cycle – sulfides will increase and become intense (some sulfide events were so extreme they would oxidize paint on homes) the rotten egg smells of The Great Heat 1880-1920 permeate hot summer nights.

Sulfides will build up from below reaching the marsh surface damaging plant specialized root cells resistant to sulfide but in extreme conditions even the marsh grasses will weaken (many advantageous fungus infections now set in) the plants making them more susceptible to secondary infections. As plants die the brown-black surface will act as a heat sink activity sulfate reduction deep below the marsh surface. Natures marine compost pile will “burn” in intense heat as bacteria now consume it from below. Sapropel ‘s will also now become warm and purge ammonia – as fresh organic matter is deposited on them they will also build up (constantly noticed by shellfishers and crabbers) become greasy to touch and acidic. If Sapropel is dislodged the sulfides in them will turn to sulfuric acid – the acid wash that dissolves metal crab pots and in time anchor chains. Many Cape Cod fishers would notice sulfide damage on salt pond moorings term it the “dead line.” Acid washes will occur and die offs of fish/crabs become more evident – the waters may now be a continuous dead zone ruled by sulfur and toxic sulfides. In the end heavy metals – by acid waters especially aluminum now are discharged killing the eggs and larval forms of fish and shellfish we value and algal species who can grow on ammonia – cloud the water preventing UV light (natures natural antibacterial agent) from killing the bacteria below. A natures clean sweep of oxygen dependent life forms. Salt marshes are in fact sulfur’s army in reserve – Sapropel just a battleground.

That is why it is so important to monitor Sapropel and ammonia discharges from them. They are the sulfur/oxygen battlefield – did we help sulfur win by removing nitrate or remove nitrite a source to start ammonia removal by anammox? Two good questions and why Sapropel study should be top of the climate change research storyboard – unfortunately it is not.

At a critical time in climate change discussions Sapropel was missed – we need to know much more about the bacterial communities in them – the battlefield is in full view – cold winters oxygen is returned, organic matter is digested and rematerialized Sapropel formation is limited, but in heat and warm winters Sapropel can grow – and in it sulfur reducing bacteria can increase. In long hot low energy cycles we see Sapropel build up with its horrendous sulfur impacts, in cold and stormy periods Sapropel appear to melt back to the “black sands” described on Cape Cod when salt ponds cut off from tidal flows – suffered black water sulfide fish kills until good circulation was restored – frequently by dredging.

Sapropel is natures living marine compost pile – and similar to land compost when oxygenated will slowly be reduced and appear to melt away. It is also where the sulfur/oxygen struggle to dominate can be closely watched. Since heat seems to be so critical to these bacterial reversals the shallows that warm and hold heat will show the first reversals. Deep cores in salt marshes may also signal sulfate reduction below marsh surfaces and the formation of pools of liquid Sapropel beneath them. In times as these pools form and move towards the surface a section of salt marsh may collapse forming a sink hole. In warm climates entire salt marshes will retreat, as the leading edges succumb to increased sulfate reduction, and farthest from organic matter (closest to tidal waters with sulfate) a life or death battle between temperature organic matter and bacteria occurs. Some salt marshes deprived of terrestrial organic matter – and restricted flows will “sink” and then as more sulfate saltwater flows in be consumed from the surfaces well. Eventually the grass will be killed by sulfides and leave a bottom mud flat which now turns to Sapropel in low oxygen conditions.

The sulfur cycle is deadly to many of the marine life forms we value as food – that is why we try to limit sulfur in emissions into the atmosphere – after all that is how it got into coal – as fossilized Sapropel is just coal. The sulfur cycle is very bad for us and the marine organisms we value as food – not so much nitrogen. We decided to wage war on nitrogen but in a warm future sulfur will be much more of a foe. In fact in time we may learn we focused on the wrong nitrogen compounds as well.

I respond to all emails at Tim.Visel@new-haven.k12.ct.us

April 17, 1958

Dr. Paul S. Galtsoff
Woods Hole
Mass.

Dear Dr. Galtsoff:

Here in Connecticut we are fighting the seemingly loosing battle of saving our tidal marshes. One of the features of the evaluation of these marshes is that which is contributed through the nutrients and minute animal forms which go into the production of seed oysters and soft clams. I have recently conferred with Dr. Loosnoff of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Marine Laboratory, Milford, Connecticut, and he has suggested that, if possible, it would be well for us to sit down with you and discuss the many values which these tidal marshes have to the production of fin fish and shellfish along our Atlantic Seaboard. Inasmuch as many of us are not Marine Biologists, we would like to be able to reproduce many of the statements which you will give us. Would it be agreeable to you if we brought along a Tape Recorder so that we would be sure to have a record of the many things which will be of value to us? I would appreciate hearing from you as to a convenient time and place at which we might meet and discuss this problem with you.

Yours very truly,

Arroll L. Lamson
ALL:lcs Chief, Game Division

Obtained from CT Board Fish and Game Files
1988 Waterford DEP Marine Fisheries Office

Rekeyed by Susan Weber
For The Sound School- May 7, 2012

Recent Marine Sediments

A Symposium

Edited by
PARKER D. TRASK
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WASHINGTON, D.C.

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS TULSA, OKALAHOMA, U.S.A.
___________________

LONDON, THOMAS MURBY & CO., I, FLEET LANE, E.C. 4
1939

OCCURRENCE AND ACTIVITY OF BACTERIA
IN MARINE SEDIMENTS

CLAUDE E. ZoBELL
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, La Jolla, California

ABSTRACT

Aerobic as well as anaerobic bacteria are found in marine bottom deposits. They are most abundant in the topmost few centimeters of sediment below which both types of bacteria decrease in number with depth. A statistical treatment of the data on their vertical distribution suggests that aerobes are active to a depth of only 5-10 centimeters whereas anaerobes are active to depths of 40-60 centimeters below which they seem to be slowly dying off. However, microbiological processes may continue at considerably greater depths owing to the activity of the bacterial enzymes that accumulate in the sediments. The organic content is the chief factor which influences the number and kinds of bacteria found in sediments.

Bacteria lower the oxidation-reduction (O/R) potential of the sediments. Vertical sections reveal that the reducing intensity of the sediments increases with depth but the muds have the greatest reducing capacity near the surface. Three different types of oxygen absorption by the reduced muds are described, namely, chemical, enzymatic, and respiratory.

Bacteria that decompose or transform proteins, lipins, cellulose, starch, chitin and other organic complexes occur in marine sediments. These bacteria tend to reduce the organic matter content of the sediments to a state of composition more closely resembling petroleum although methane is the only hydrocarbon known to be produced by the bacteria. The precipitation or solution of calcium carbonate as well as certain other minerals is influenced by microbiological processes that affect the hydrogen-ion concentration. Other bacterial processes influence the sulfur cycle and the state of iron in the sediments. The possible role of bacteria in the genesis of petroleum is discussed.

DECOMPOSITION CAUSED BY BACTERIA

Various physiological or biochemical types of bacteria have been demonstrated in the sediments that are capable of attacking most kinds of organic matter present in the sea. The rate and end-products of decomposition of the organic matter depend upon environmental conditions and the types of bacteria that are present. Waksman and Carey (49) have shown that diatoms, Fucus, alginic acid, copepods and other marine materials are utilized by bacteria with the rapid consumption of oxygen and the production of carbon dioxide and ammonia. More resistant fractions of marine plants and animals such as lignins hemicellulose-protein complexes may be only partially decomposed to give rise to marine humus (50).

Approximately one-fourth of the bacteria isolated from marine sediments are actively proteolytic (18,56) as indicated by their ability to attack proteinaceous materials and in so doing liberate ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. Presumably the topmost layer of sediment is the zone of greatest proteolytic activity below which there is a gradual, but not very appreciable, decrease in the nitrogen content of the sediments (30). According to Trask (45) amino acids and simple proteins constitute a very minor part of the organic-matter content. Hecht (23) reports that most simple proteins are completely decomposed even under anaerobic conditions and are not converted into adipocere. He records that about 90 percent of the nitrogen content sediments is due to chitin. Chitinoclastic bacteria are widely distributed (57) throughout the sea but chitin is only slowly attacked by bacteria even in the presence of oxygen and it may be more resistant under anaerobic conditions.

Most simple carbohydrates are readily decomposed (54) by the bacteria that occur in bottom sediments. Under aerobic conditions the end-products of the fermentation of carbohydrates are chiefly carbon dioxide and water. In the absence of oxygen, carbohydrates may be attacked and thus yield organic acids, methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and other products. Buswell and Boruff (9) noted the production of acetic, butyric and lactic acids, alcohol, methane, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide from the bacterial fermentation of cellulose under anaerobic conditions. Several types of cellulose-decomposing bacteria (48,49,51) have been isolated from bottom deposits but very little is known concerning their metabolism. The fact (45, 46) that less than 1 percent of the total organic-matter content of recent sediments is carbohydrate,whereas ancient sediments contain none, is indicative of the vulnerability of this class of compounds to bacterial attack. However, much remains to be done to ascertain the end-products of the reactions.

Perhaps bacteria have a greater influence than any other form of life on the hydrogen-ion concentration and O/R potential of sediments; properties that in turn tend to modify both the chemical composition and physical characteristics of the sediments. They may deplete the oxygen as noted above, they may liberate nitrogen from nitrites or nitrates and they may produce carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane in appreciable amounts.

EPA Long Island Sound Study
Habitat Restoration Initiative
Salt Hay Production Funds Early Guilford Public Schools

How The East River / Neck River Ecosystem Was Saved
A Look Back with Thanks to Anne Conover
Timothy C. Visel

The Sound School Regional Vocational Aquaculture School
July 13, 2009

Prepared for Sandy Breslin of the Connecticut Audubon Society

Over forty years ago, a group of individuals met to discuss the East River marsh system as a unique and valuable habitat to estuarine species. Although especially not anti-development, they sought to preserve the salt marshes as they are today, largely untouched by development. Leading the preservation effort then was the Guilford Conservation Commission Chairman Anne Conover.

At the state level, Commissioner Joseph Gill of the Connecticut Department of Agriculture and National Resources was especially concerned. The state has suffered huge habitat losses in the coastal zone and sought help from two sister state agencies, the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife and Water Resources and asked one question, “Can we save it?”

On April 3, 1968, Anne Conover sought to contact then Governor John Dempsey, but talked to his assistant, Mr. Ahern.

“I told him that we were most anxious that the Governor get this story, because of his obligation to the voters, not just for this present situation, but for the future; he asked me to write the whole ‘story’ to the Governor.”

A few days later, a strongly worded letter arrived from the United States Department of the Interior’s Fish & Wildlife Service. In it, Richard E. Griffith wrote, “Estuaries such as the East River are widely recognized as one of the most naturally fertile areas anywhere in the world.” By June, the state was committed to buy it, which they did.

Today, this ecosystem remains remarkably intact, and a good example of low impact sustainable resource use. Docks are found on the Neck River, the East River has a boat launch ramp, owned by the state. Ospreys are frequent visitors and build nests to raise young, just a few feet away from houses at Circle Beach. The area supports recreational activities such as kayaking, fishing and blue crabbing. The oyster beds in the Neck and East Rivers continue to be productive. A low tide, you can still see the old corduroy roads made from slab wood that allowed carts to haul salt hay to be sold to fund the earliest Guilford schools. Look for them on the westerly bank of the Neck River (once Guilford) opposite the old “Madison” Town Dock. The Neck River currently supports once of the largest remaining Terrapin populations in North America.

It’s hard to imagine how different this area would look today were it not for the activism and dedication of Anne Conover, Chairman of the Guilford Conservation Commission during the 1960’s.

Much thanks.

Information obtained from State of Connecticut Department of Fisheries and Wildlife files turned over to the DEP Maine Fisheries Division in 1973.

THE NEW YORK TIMES, SUNDAY, AUGUST 5, 1984

U.S. Requires Changes in Mosquito War

By Peggy McCarthy

A state mosquito-control program has been curtailed because the equipment to battle the bugs does not have the required approval of the Army Corps of Engineers.

The absence of the program, to build drainage ditches has not seemed to affect the mosquito populations according to the chief of environmental health in the health Services Department, Paul Schur. He said that if the Army did not approve using the equipment, “in three or four years, we would begin to see some problems.”

The corps, which has expressed concerns about the environmental effects of the machinery on tidal waters, told the state last year to stop using it, Mr. Schur said.

The state does not expect to submit its application for the program until next month, he added.

The equipment, housed at the vector-control garage in Madison, was used at the shore to circulate tidal waters to prevent mosquitoes’ breeding.

The state, which has an amphibious rotary ditcher, bulldozer and ditcher, had been using machinery since 1949. The existing machines- the largest is 32 feet long and 11 feet wide – had been in use since 1979, Mr. Schur said.

“They caught up with us,” he said of the corps. “It’s my understanding they are catching up with other states, too.”

“We’ve balanced off the lack of ditch maintenance by applying more larvacide in the marshes,” he added.

The program began in 1920, after the General Assembly had mandated state maintenance of the marshes in certain towns. Until 1946, all control was by hand, and oil was the only insecticide used.

Inland, control is the responsibility of local governments, but Mr. Schur’s department consults with local health and public-works departments.

“We don’t have any equipment that would work inland.” He said.
This year, most complaints have come from inland, Mr. Schur said. He attributed the problem to flooding in June and frequent rains.

The coastal areas have been taken care of by the larvaciding we’ve been doing,” he said. “I don’t think the level of complaints down at the coast were any greater this year than they were in the past.”

Mr. Schur said one reason for the length of the application process was that state health officials had been meeting with environmental and other groups, so that “hopefully”, these people will not protest” the application at hearings.

The state is applying for a permit to allow more water on the surfaces of marshes, he said. “With modification of the program, we felt it was necessary to spend time educating” interested people.

Mr. Schur predicted that the Army would not make a decision until at least three months after the application is submitted. If the application is approved, he said, the equipment could be back in use next spring.

Rekeyed for The Sound School by Susan Weber

Malaria in the Connecticut Valley

By Howard N. Simpson, M.D.

A forgotten fragment of the medical history of the Connecticut Valley deals with the several outbreaks of what our forebears called the ague (rhymes with plague you) from a French word meaning acute. What was acute was the abrupt onset of a severe chill followed by a high fever. Nowadays the disease is known as malaria and is seldom seen outside of the tropics. However, given the right combination of anopheline mosquitoes, humans infected with malarial parasites and individuals who are not immune, the disease may spread during warm weather in other climates.

Malaria was not indigenous to North American prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the West Indies in the 16th century. Many years later the Dutch apparently brought it to New Amsterdam; at least we know that some of them suffered severely from it. They seem to have been the ones to introduce the disorder to southern Connecticut. Amy, the wife of John Pynchon, had characteristic bouts of chills and fever in Springfield in 1654.

Early in the following century Rev. Stephen Williams, the first pastor of the church in Longmeadow, described in his diary his miseries and periodic attacks in this manner: “May 14, 1716: This day I had a very bad fit of ye feavor & ague.” The entries continued in this vein for the next two months.

Until about 1750 the disease was common during warm weather, i.e. when mosquitoes were common, in southern New England, and then retreated – no one knows why. It continued to be a scourge in New York, New Jersey and farther south and was a major source of harassment to the British troops during the American Revolution.

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Dr. Simpson is the author of Invisible Armies, the Impact of Disease on American History (Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. $12.95). He lives in Wilbraham, MA.

Page 6, The Valley Newsletter, April 1982